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1600 JOHANNES KEPLER (1571 - 1630) This Jesuit scholar, astronomer and assistant to Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) wrote about observing the sun using a room camera similar to the one described by Porta. Kepler described this event in his first published work on astronomy, 'Ad Vitellionem Paralipomena' (Supplement To Witelo, Kepler, J., Frankfurt, Germany, 1604, p51). The first occurrence of the name "camera obscura" is found in this work. Johannes Kepler (right) (1571-1630) coined the phrase 'camera obscura'. The first occurrence of it's use is found in his 'Ad Vitellionem Paralipomena' of 1604. In 1609 Kepler suggested the use of the lens to improve the image.

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1609 JOHANNES KEPLER (1571 - 1630) His use of the telescope in this year was the foundation for his 'Dioptrice' (Concerning Lenses, Kepler, J., Augsburg, Germany, 1611, ch.XLIII, p16) which suggested improvements to the room camera using the lens. This manuscript (Opera Omnia, Kepler, J., vol.II, p549-555) by Kepler also shows the advantage of amplified projection, biconvex (ocular) lens and inverting the image. In Kepler's 'Dioptrice' (left) he talks of the image in the room being improved if a lens is used which would invert the image. Kepler also mentions amplifying the projection as an advantage. Dioptrice ('Concerning Lenses') was published in 1609.

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1610 CHRISTOPHER SCHEINER (1575 - 1650) This German Jesuit and pupil of Kircher designed and built what he called his "Pantograph" (also see 1611-1612) or, device for making optical copies. He illustrated this instrument in his 'Rosa Ursina Sive Sol' (Scheiner, C., Bracciano, Italy, 1630, Book II, ch.8, p107, and plate). The next year he would observe sunspots. It is difficult to see in the image to the right, but the viewer is on the far side of the camera and has his head inserted in the device, and completing the drawing.

Christopher Scheiner's 'Pantograph' (above right ). The telescopic lens mounted in the front of the box (camera), can be seen extending out the window. It is believed the device was 22 metres long. The image of the sun, and sunspots were projected on the rear screen within the framework which was covered with material. Christopher Scheiner wrote his 'Rosa Ursina Sive Sol' in 1630. He illustrated this small portable camera obscura in book 2, chapter 8, and page 107 showing clearly a telescope in the aperture. Scheiner was a student of Athananius Kircher. In 1619 Scheiner shows an illustration highlighting the use of a second lens to invert the image in his 'Oculus' .

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1611 JOHANNES KEPLER (1571 - 1630) Kepler's portable camera obscura (tent) is described in a paper, 'Reliquiae Wottonianae' (1st ed., London, 1651, p413) by Sir Henry Wotton, to lord Francis Bacon. This is one of the earliest English language descriptions given to the camera obscura. In the paper, Wotton tells of Kepler's `tent' "which can be moved about, totally closed and dark with a small hole about an inch and a half in diameter". This description comes with no illustration, and 35 years later Kircher will speak of a similar depiction. Kepler's tent may have looked something like this engraving (left) which is taken from a 19th century English encyclopedia. Henry Wotton described this portable camera obscura of Kepler's to Francis Bacon.

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1611 - 1612 CHRISTOPHER SCHEINER (1575 - 1650) Scheiner used his "Pantograph" or "Helioscope" to view sunspots (see 1610 SCHEINER). This instrument was a small portable camera 22 metres in length with a telescope for the aperture. It is illustrated in his 'Rosa Ursina'. Scheiner was able to project the surface of the sun onto a piece of paper where he could draw it. This helioptric telescope protected the eye from damage. Scheiner and Galileo differed in their views on these sunspots.

Scheiner's sunspots seen through the heliograph were provided for us in his 'Rosa Ursina Sive Sol' by way of drawings (above). Clearly the camera obscura has played a vital role in other sciences. (Taken from William R. Shea, Scheiner, Christoph," Dictionary of Scientific Biography; idem, "Scheiner, and the Interpretation of Sunspots," Isis, 61 (1970):498-519).

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1619 CHRISTOPHER SCHEINER (1575 - 1650) In this year Scheiner describes in his book 'Oculus' (Scheiner, 1619) the camera obscura utilizing a human figure as an actor and showing the inverted image. Scheiner, in this same manuscript shows an illustration highlighting the use of a second lens to invert the image. Illustration (left) from Scheiner's 'Oculus' of 1619. Here he gives a clear demonstration of a room-type camera obscura in the form of a cave or earthen hut. It clearly shows the use of a second lens in order to erect the image.

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1626 WILLEBRORD SNELL VAN ROIJEN (1580 - 1626) Also VAN SNELL, and VAN ROYEN (SNELLIUS). This professor of mathematics at Leyden discovers the law governing the refraction of light but did not publish it. Later in 1703 Christian Huygens published his findings in 'Dioptrica'.

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1631 PETRO GASSENDRO (PIERRE GASSENDI) (1592 - 1655) This astronomer uses the camera to observe the transit of Mercury across the sun and describes it in his 'Institutio Astronomica' (Gassendo, Petro, Paris, France, 1647, pp186,199). Pierre Gassendi

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1634 JOHN BATE ( - ) Bate describes the Zoetrope in his 'Mysteries of Nature and Art' (Bate, John, London, 1634, p30). The work of Bate was an inspiration to Issac Newton.

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1635 ATHANASIUS KIRCHER (1602 - 1680) Kircher was a scholar at Rome who was made professor of mathematics. He observed the sun using the camera obscura. Kircher was diverse in his experimentations and studies as he was also involved with hydraulic organs. Athanasius Kircher

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1636 DANIEL SCHWENTER (1585 - 1636) This professor of mathematics and oriental languages at Altdorf constructed what was called a scioptric ball (today's fish-eye lens). Movement of this lens-ball in the aperture of the camera allowed artists to draw or paint panoramic views. Schwenter describes this lens in his 'Deliciae Physio Mathematicae' (Schwenter, Daniel, Nurnberg, Germany, 1651, p255). Zahn (Oculus Artificialis, Zahn, Johann, Wurzburg, 1685-6) and Schott (Magia Universalis Naturae Et Artis, "The Wonders of Universal Nature and Art", Schott, Kaspar, Wurzburg, 1657, p76) both speak of the lens; Zahn as "scioptric" and Schott as "ox-eye".

Schwenter's illustration (right) of his scioptric ball, or as he called it, an "ox-eye lens". This lens provided the same effect as today's fish-eye lens (-28mm). It was constructed with two lenses mounted at opposite ends of a circular ball or sphere, made out of wood. It was secured enough to hold the lenses in place, and would also allow movement within, thereby providing a panoramic view of the image being viewed such as a landscape by simply swiveling the ball. This illustration comes from Schwenter's 'Deliciae Physio Mathematicae', published in 1636.

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	1637 RENE DESCARTES (RENE DU PERRON) (1596 - 1650) Descartes wrote in his 'La Dioptrique' (1637) about vision and the eye. He compared the eye to the camera obscura saying the retina is the screen of the camera.

Rene Decartes' 1637 diagram (right) of the eye as a camera obscura. Descartes compared the eye to the camera saying that the retina is the same as the screen of the camera where the image resides. On page 76 of his 'Magia Universalis', Kaspar Schott also used the eye (of an ox), to compare with the retinal image.

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1639 JEREMIAH HORROX or HORROCKS (1617 - 1641) This English astronomer observed the transit of venus across the sun using the camera obscura, 24th November. The German astronomer Kepler predicted the event, but Horrox corrected Kepler's calculation to the exact day of the year.

Lavender's 1903 Painting Of The Moment

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1646 ATHANASIUS KIRCHER (1602 - 1680) The most mentioned name in reference to the magic lantern, Kircher describes it in his 'Ars Magna Lucis Et Umbra' (The Great Art of Light and Shadow, Kircher, A., 1st ed. vol.10, Rome, Italy, 1646) and illustrates a camera obscura of almost room size (plate 28 of vol.10, sec. 2). In the last volume he explains the magic lantern and it's use. Kircher describes a similar construction of a camera to that of Wotton's description (which was of Kepler's). Kircher also details in the book a revolving wheel of painted pictures, something which wasn't seen again until the 19th century. 'Ars Magna' (1st ed) did not include any illustration of the magic lantern however it did include a fine illustration of the camera obscura.

Camera Obscura (above) from Athanasius Kircher's Ars Magna Lucis Et Umbra (The Great Art of Light and Shadow) 1646. Originally, camera obscuras were the size of rooms and thus take their name from the latin 'dark room'. (Ars Magna, 1st ed. vol.10, plate 28 of vol.10, sec. 2, 1646). In this image we can see the 'room within the room' with appropriate pinholes where the light image strikes the interior wall where the artist can then render his drawing. The inner wall is semi transparent, allowing the artist to see his image before he draws it. 'F' identifies a trap door in the floor for entry and exit.

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